F. Albarède, Time-dependent models of U-Th-He and K-Ar evolution and the layering of mantle convection, Chem. Geol, vol.145, pp.413-429, 1998.

F. Albarède and R. Van-der-hilst, Zoned mantle convection, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, vol.360, pp.2569-2592, 2002.

C. J. Allègre, Isotope geodynamics, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.86, pp.175-203, 1987.

C. J. Allègre, Limitation on the mass exchange between the upper and lower mantle: The evolving convection regime of the Earth, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.150, pp.1-6, 1997.

C. J. Allègre, D. B. Othman, M. Polve, and P. Richard, The Nd-Sr isotopic correlation in mantle materials and geodynamic consequences, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.81, pp.319-337, 1979.

V. R. Baker, R. G. Strom, V. C. Gulick, J. S. Kargel, G. Komatsu et al., Ancient oceans, ice sheets and the hydrological cycle on Mars, Nature, vol.352, pp.589-594, 1991.

T. W. Becker, J. B. Kellogg, and R. J. O'connell, Thermal constraints on the survival of primitive blobs in the lower mantle, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.171, pp.351-365, 1999.

D. Bercovici, The generation of plate tectonics from mantle convection, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.205, pp.107-121, 2003.

C. R. Bina, Lower mantle mineralogy and the geophysical perspective, in Ultra-high Pressure Mineralogy, Am. Mineral. Soc, vol.37, 1998.

D. Brunet and P. Machetel, Large-scale tectonic features induced by mantle avalanches with phase, temperature, and pressure lateral variations of viscosity, J. Geophys. Res, vol.103, pp.4929-4946, 1998.

K. Caldeira and M. R. Rampino, The mid-Cretaceous superplume, carbon dioxide, and global warming, Geophys. Res. Lett, vol.18, pp.987-990, 1991.

A. Cazenave and C. Thoraval, Mantle dynamics constrained by degree 6 surface topography, seismic tomography and geoid: Inference on the origin of the south Pacific superswell, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.122, pp.207-219, 1994.

A. Cazenave, A. Souriau, and K. Dominh, Global coupling of Earth surface topography with hotspots, geoid and mantle heterogeneities, Nature, vol.340, pp.54-57, 1989.

U. R. Christensen, Mixing by time-dependent convection, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.95, pp.382-394, 1989.

U. R. Christensen, Effects of phase transitions on mantle convection, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci, vol.23, pp.65-87, 1995.

U. R. Christensen and A. W. Hofmann, Segregation of subducted oceanic crust in the convecting mantle, J. Geophys. Res, vol.99, pp.867-886, 1994.

U. R. Christensen and D. A. Yuen, Layered convection induced by phase transitions, J. Geophys. Res, vol.90, pp.291-301, 1985.

N. Coltice and Y. Ricard, Geochemical observations and one layer mantle convection, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.174, pp.125-137, 1999.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02046744

K. C. Condie, Episodic continental growth and supercontinents: A mantle avalanche connection?, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.163, pp.97-108, 1998.

K. C. Condie, Superplume events in Earth history, paper presented at Superplume Workshop, Tokyo Inst. of Technol, 2002.

V. Courtillot and J. Besse, Magnetic-field reversals, polar wander and core-mantle coupling, Science, vol.237, pp.1140-1147, 1987.

V. Courtillot, J. J. Jaeger, Z. Yang, G. Feraud, and C. Hofmann, The influence of continental flood basalts on mass extinctions: Where do we stand?, Proceedings of Conference on New Developments Regarding the KT Event and Other Catastrophes in Earth History, vol.307, pp.513-525, 1996.

V. Courtillot, A. Davaille, J. Besse, and J. Stock, Three distinct types of hotspots in the Earth's mantle, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.205, pp.295-308, 2002.

A. Cox, Magnetostratigraphic time scale, A Geologic Time Scale, pp.63-84, 1982.

A. Davaille, Two-layer thermal convection in miscible fluids, J. Fluid Mech, vol.379, pp.223-253, 1999.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00084086

A. Davaille, Simultaneous generation of hotspots and superswells by convection in a heterogeneous planetary mantle, Nature, vol.402, pp.756-760, 1999.

A. Davaille, F. Girard, and M. L. Bars, How to anchor hot spots in a convecting mantle?, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.203, pp.621-634, 2002.

A. Davaille, M. L. Bars, and C. Carbonne, Thermal convection in an heterogeneous mantle, C. R. Geosci, vol.335, pp.141-156, 2003.

G. F. Davies, Geophysical and isotopic constraints on mantle convection: An interim synthesis, J. Geophys. Res, vol.89, pp.6017-6040, 1984.

G. F. Davies and M. Gurnis, Interaction of mantle dregs with convection: Lateral heterogeneity at the core-mantle boundary, Geophys. Res. Lett, vol.13, pp.1517-1520, 1986.

D. Depaolo and G. J. Wasserburg, Inferences about magma sources and mantle structure from variations of 143 Nd/ 144 Nd, Geophys. Res. Lett, vol.3, pp.743-746, 1976.

A. M. Dziewonski and D. L. Anderson, Preliminary reference Earth model, Phys. Earth Planet. Int, vol.25, pp.297-356, 1981.

A. M. Dziewonski and J. H. Woodhouse, Global images of the Earth's interior, vol.236, pp.37-48, 1987.

S. Ferrachat and Y. Ricard, Regular vs. chaotic mantle mixing, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.155, pp.75-86, 1998.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02046748

A. M. Forte and J. X. Mitrovica, Deep-mantle high-viscosity flow and thermochemical structure inferred from seismic and geodynamic data, Nature, vol.410, pp.1049-1056, 2001.

A. M. Forte, J. X. Mitrovica, and R. L. Woodward, Seismicgeodynamic determination of the origin of excess ellipticity of the core-mantle boundary, Geophys. Res. Lett, vol.22, pp.1013-1016, 1995.

Y. Fukao, S. Widiyantoro, and M. Obayashi, Stagnant slabs in the upper and lower mantle transition region, Rev. Geophys, vol.39, pp.291-324, 2001.

Y. Gallet and G. Hulot, Stationary and nonstationary behaviour within the geomagnetic polarity time scale, Geophys. Res. Lett, vol.24, pp.1875-1878, 1997.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/insu-01406447

E. Garzanti, Himalayan ironstones, 'superplumes', and the breakup of Gondwana, Geology, vol.21, pp.105-108, 1993.

S. P. Grand, R. D. Van-der-hilst, and S. Widiyantoro, High resolution global tomography: A snapshot of convection in the Earth, Geol. Soc. Am. Today, vol.7, pp.1-7, 1997.

R. Greeley and B. D. Schneid, Magma generation on Mars: Amounts, rates and comparisons with Earth, vol.254, pp.996-998, 1991.

D. Gubbins, Geomagnetic polarity reversals: A connection with secular variation and core-mantle interaction?, Rev. Geophys, vol.32, pp.61-83, 1994.

L. Guillou and C. Jaupart, On the effect of continents on mantle convection, J. Geophys. Res, vol.100, pp.217-241, 1995.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00562385

M. Gurnis, The effects of chemical density differences on convective mixing in the Earth's mantle, J. Geophys. Res, vol.91, p.419, 1986.

M. Gurnis, J. X. Mitrovica, J. Ritsema, and H. Van-heijst, Constraining mantle density structure using geological evidence of surface uplift rates: The case of the African superplume, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst, vol.1, 2000.

F. Guyot, M. Madon, J. Peyronneau, and J. Poirier, X-ray microanalysis of high-pressure/high-temperature phases synthesized from natural olivine in a diamond-anvill cell, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.90, pp.52-64, 1988.

U. Hansen and D. A. Yuen, Numerical simulations of thermalchemical instabilities at the core-mantle boundary, Nature, vol.334, pp.237-240, 1988.

U. Hansen and D. A. Yuen, Extended-Boussinesq thermal-chemical convection with moving heat sources and variable viscosity, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.176, pp.401-411, 2000.

D. L. Herrick and E. M. Parmentier, Episodic large-scale overturn of two-layer mantles in terrestrial planets, J. Geophys. Res, vol.99, pp.2053-2062, 1994.

A. W. Hofmann, Mantle geochemistry: The message from oceanic volcanism, Nature, vol.385, pp.219-229, 1997.

M. Ishii and J. Tromp, Normal-mode and free-air gravity constraints on lateral variations in velocity and density of Earth's mantle, Science, vol.285, pp.1231-1236, 1999.

A. E. Isley and D. H. Abbott, Plume-related mafic volcanism and the deposition of banded iron formation, J. Geophys. Res, vol.104, p.477, 1999.

E. Ito and E. Takahashi, Post-spinel transformations in the system Mg 2 SiO 4 -Fe 2 SiO 4 and some geophysical implications, J. Geophys. Res, vol.94, pp.637-647, 1989.

I. Jackson, Elasticity, composition and temperature of the Earth's lower mantle: A reappraisal, Geophys. J. Int, vol.134, pp.291-311, 1998.

S. B. Jacobsen and G. J. Wasserburg, The mean age of mantle and crustal reservoirs, J. Geophys. Res, vol.84, pp.7411-7428, 1979.

S. Karato and P. Wu, Rheology of the upper mantle: A synthesis, Science, vol.260, pp.771-778, 1993.

J. S. Kargel and R. G. Strom, Ancient glaciation on Mars, Geology, vol.62, pp.310-316, 1992.

L. H. Kellogg, B. H. Hager, and R. D. Van-der-hilst, Compositional stratification in the deep mantle, vol.283, pp.1881-1884, 1999.

S. Labrosse, Hotspots, mantle plumes and core heat loss, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.199, pp.147-156, 2002.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00599647

R. L. Larson, Geological consequences of superplumes, vol.19, pp.963-966, 1991.

R. L. Larson and P. Olso, Mantle plumes control magnetic reversal frequency, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.107, pp.437-447, 1991.

T. Lay, Q. Williams, and E. J. Garnero, The core-mantle boundary layer and deep Earth dynamics, Nature, vol.392, pp.461-467, 1998.

L. Bars, M. , and A. Davaille, Stability of thermal convection in two superimposed miscible viscous fluids, J. Fluid Mech, vol.471, pp.339-363, 2002.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00084079

L. Bars, M. , and A. Davaille, Large interface deformation in twolayer thermal convection of miscible viscous fluids, J. Fluid Mech, vol.499, pp.75-110, 2004.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00084086

X. Li and B. Romanowicz, Global mantle shear velocity model developed using nonlinear asymptotic coupling theory, J. Geophys. Res, vol.101, p.272, 1996.

C. Lithgow-bertelloni and P. G. Silver, Dynamic topography, plate driving forces and the African superswell, Nature, vol.395, pp.269-272, 1998.

P. Machetel and P. Weber, Intermittent layered convection in a model mantle with an endothermic phase change at 670 km, Nature, vol.350, pp.55-57, 1991.

M. Manga, Mixing of heterogeneities in the mantle: Effects of viscosity differences, Geophys. Res. Lett, vol.23, pp.403-406, 1996.

M. Matsui, Molecular dynamics simulation of MgSiO 3 perovskite and the 660 km seismic discontinuity, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter, vol.121, pp.77-84, 2000.

M. Matsui, S. C. Parker, and M. Leslie, The MD simulation of the equation of state of MgO: Application as a pressure calibration standard at high temperature and high pressure, Am. Mineral, vol.85, pp.312-316, 2000.

D. Mckenzie and F. M. Richter, Parameterized convection in a layered region and the thermal history of the Earth, J. Geophys. Res, vol.86, pp.667-678, 1981.

D. Mckenzie, J. Roberts, and N. Weiss, Convection in the Earth's mantle: Towards a numerical simulation, J. Fluid Mech, vol.62, pp.465-538, 1974.

M. K. Mcnutt, Superswells, Rev. Geophys, vol.36, pp.211-244, 1998.

M. K. Mcnutt and K. M. Fisher, The South Pacific superswell, Seamounts, Islands and Atolls, vol.43, pp.25-34, 1987.

M. K. Mcnutt and A. V. Judge, The superswell and mantle dynamics beneath the South Pacific, Science, vol.248, pp.969-975, 1990.

H. W. Ménard, Marine Geology of the Pacific, 1964.

R. T. Merrill and P. L. Mcfadden, Dynamo theory and paleomagnetism, J. Geophys. Res, vol.100, pp.317-326, 1995.

R. T. Merrill and P. L. Mcfadden, Geomagnetic polarity transitions, Rev. Geophys, vol.37, pp.201-226, 1999.

N. Merveilleux-du-vignaux and L. Fleitout, Stretching and mixing of viscous blobs in Earth's mantle, J. Geophys. Res, vol.106, pp.893-923, 2001.

N. L. Montague and L. H. Kellogg, Numerical models of a dense layer at the base of the mantle and implications for the geodynamics of D 00, J. Geophys. Res, vol.105, pp.101-112, 2000.

T. Nakakuki, H. Sato, and H. Fujimoto, Interaction of the upwelling plume with the phase and chemical boundary at the 670 km discontinuity-effects of temperature-dependent viscosity, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.121, pp.369-384, 1994.

S. Ni, E. Tan, M. Gurnis, and D. Helmberger, Sharp sides to the African superplume, Science, vol.296, pp.1850-1852, 2002.

A. A. Nyblade and S. W. Robinson, The African superswell, Geophys. Res. Lett, vol.21, pp.765-768, 1994.

P. Olson, An experimental approach to thermal convection in a twolayered mantle, J. Geophys. Res, vol.89, pp.293-304, 1984.

P. Olson and C. Kincaid, Experiments on the interaction of thermal convection and compositional layering at the base of the mantle, J. Geophys. Res, vol.96, pp.4347-4354, 1991.

P. Olson and H. Singer, Creeping plumes, J. Fluid Mech, vol.158, pp.511-531, 1985.

R. K. O'nions, N. M. Evensen, and P. J. Hamilton, , p.143, 1979.

, Nd/ 144 Nd and 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratios in oceanic basalts, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.34, pp.13-22

J. Poirier, Introduction to the Physics of the Earth's Interior, 1991.

J. S. Ray and K. Pande, Carbonatite alkaline magmatism associated with continental flood basalts at stratigraphic boundaries: Cause for mass extinctions, Geophys. Res. Lett, vol.26, pp.1917-1920, 1999.

N. M. Ribe, Spouting and planform selection in the Rayleigh-Taylor instability of miscible viscous fluids, J. Fluid Mech, vol.377, pp.27-45, 1998.

M. A. Richards and D. C. Engebretson, Large scale mantle convection and the history of subduction, Nature, vol.355, pp.437-440, 1992.

M. A. Richards, R. A. Duncan, and V. E. Courtillot, Flood basalts and hot-spot tracks: Plume heads and tails, Science, vol.246, pp.103-107, 1989.

F. M. Richter and C. E. Johnson, Stability of a chemically layered mantle, J. Geophys. Res, vol.79, pp.1635-1639, 1974.

J. Ritsema, S. Ni, D. V. Helmberger, and H. P. Crotwell, Evidence for strong shear velocity reductions and velocity gradients in the lower mantle beneath Africa, Geophys. Res. Lett, vol.25, pp.245-248, 1998.

G. S. Roberston and J. H. Woodhouse, Ratio of relative S to P velocity heterogeneity in the lower mantle, J. Geophys. Res, vol.101, p.52, 1996.

B. Romanowicz and Y. Gung, Superplumes from the core-mantle boundary to the lithosphere: Implications for heat flux, Science, vol.296, pp.513-516, 2002.

H. Samuel and C. G. Farnetani, A denser and relatively undegassed lower mantle reservoir: Geochemical and seismological model predictions, Fall Meet, vol.82, 2001.

H. Samuel and C. G. Farnetani, Thermochemical convection and helium concentrations in mantle plumes, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.207, pp.39-56, 2003.

J. Schmalzl, G. A. Houseman, and U. Hansen, Mixing in vigorous, time-dependent three-dimensional convection and application to Earth's mantle, J. Geophys. Res, vol.101, pp.847-868, 1996.

G. Schubert, D. Yuen, and D. L. Turcotte, Role of phase transitions in a dynamic mantle, Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc, vol.42, pp.705-735, 1975.

G. Schubert, C. Anderson, and P. Goldman, Mantle plume interaction with an endothermic phase change, J. Geophys. Res, vol.100, pp.8245-8256, 1995.

G. Schubert, D. L. Turcotte, and P. Olson, Mantle Convection in the Earth and Planets, 2001.

R. E. Sheridan, Phenomena of pulsation tectonics related to the breakup of the eastern North American continental margin, Tectonophysics, vol.94, pp.169-185, 1983.

L. P. Solheim and W. R. Peltier, Avalanche effects in phase transition modulated thermal convection: A model of Earth's mantle, J. Geophys. Res, vol.99, pp.6991-7018, 1994.

H. Staudigel, K. Park, M. Pringle, J. L. Rubenstone, W. H. Smith et al., The longevity of the south Pacific isotopic and thermal anomaly, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.102, pp.24-44, 1991.

M. Stein and A. W. Hofmann, Mantle plumes and episodic crustal growth, Nature, vol.372, pp.63-68, 1994.

V. Steinbach and D. A. Yuen, The influences of temperature-and pressure-dependent lower-mantle rheology on the interaction of upwellings with phase transitions, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter, vol.103, pp.85-100, 1997.

R. G. Strom, G. G. Schaber, and D. D. Dawson, The global resurfacing of Venus, J. Geophys. Res, vol.99, p.926, 1994.

W. Su and A. M. Dziewonski, Simultaneous inversion from 3-D variations in shear and bulk velocity in the mantle, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter, vol.100, pp.135-156, 1997.

I. Sumita and P. Olson, A laboratory model for convection in the Earth's core driven by a thermally heterogeneous mantle, Science, vol.286, pp.1547-1549, 1999.

P. J. Tackley, On the penetration of an endothermic phase transition by upwellings and downwellings, Science, vol.100, pp.477-492, 1995.

P. J. Tackley and . Gurnis, Three-dimensional simulations of mantle convection with a thermochemical CMB boundary layer: D 00 ?, in The Core Mantle Boundary Region, Geodyn. Ser, vol.28, pp.231-253, 1998.

P. J. Tackley, Mantle convection and plate tectonics: Toward an integrated physical and chemical theory, Science, vol.288, 2000.

P. J. Tackley, Strong heterogeneity caused by deep mantle layering, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst, vol.3, issue.4, p.1024, 2002.

P. J. Tackley, D. J. Stevenson, G. A. Glatzmaier, and G. Schubert, Effects of an endothermic phase transition at 670 km depth in a spherical model of convection in the Earth's mantle, Nature, vol.361, pp.699-704, 1993.

K. L. Tanaka and M. G. Chapman, Kasei Valles, Mars: Interpretation of canyon materials and flood sources, Proc. Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf, vol.22, pp.73-83, 1992.

A. Utsunomiya, N. Suzuki, and S. Maruyama, The history of the Pacific superplume, Tokyo Inst. of Technol, 2002.

R. D. Van-der-hilst, S. Widiyantoro, and E. R. Engdahl, Evidence for deep mantle circulation from global tomography, Nature, vol.386, pp.578-584, 1997.

P. E. Van-keken, E. H. Hauri, and C. J. Ballentine, Mantle mixing: The generation, preservation and destruction of chemical heterogeneity, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, vol.30, pp.493-525, 2002.

J. E. Vidale, G. Schubert, and P. S. Earle, Unsuccessful initial search for a midmantle chemical boundary layer with seismic arrays, Geophys. Res. Lett, vol.28, pp.859-862, 2001.

L. Vinnik, S. Chevrot, and J. Montagner, Evidence for a stagnant plume in the transition zone?, Geophys. Res. Lett, vol.24, pp.1007-1010, 1997.

Y. Wang and D. J. Weidner, (@m/@t) P of the lower mantle, Pure Appl. Geophys, vol.146, pp.533-549, 1996.

S. A. Weinstein, Catastrophic overturn of the Earth's mantle driven by multiple phase changes and internal heat generation, Geophys. Res. Lett, vol.20, pp.101-104, 1993.

R. White and D. Mckenzie, Magmatism at rift zones: The generation of volcanic continental margins and flood basalts, J. Geophys. Res, vol.94, pp.7685-7729, 1989.

J. A. Whitehead and D. S. Luther, Dynamics of laboratory diapir and plume models, J. Geophys. Res, vol.80, pp.705-717, 1975.

J. T. Wilson, Did the Atlantic close and then re-open?, Nature, vol.211, pp.676-681, 1966.

E. L. Winterer, J. H. Natland, R. J. Van-waasbergen, R. A. Duncan, M. K. Mcnutt et al., Cretaceous guyots in the northwest Pacific: An overview of their geology and geophysics, The Mesozoic Pacific: Geology, Tectonics and Volcanism, vol.77, pp.307-334, 1993.

D. A. Yuen, O. Cadek, A. Chopelas, and C. Matyska, Geophysical inferences of thermal-chemical structures in the lower mantle, Geophys. Res. Lett, vol.20, pp.899-902, 1993.

D. A. Yuen, D. M. Reuteler, S. Balachandar, V. Steinbach, A. V. Malevsky et al., Various influences on three-dimensional mantle convection with phase transitions, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter, vol.86, pp.185-203, 1994.

M. Zhao, D. A. Yuen, and S. Honda, Multiple phase transitions and the style of mantle convection, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter, vol.72, pp.185-210, 1992.

M. L. Àààààààààààààààààààààà-À-a.-davaille and . Bars, Laboratoire de Dynamique des Systèmes Géologiques