A. The and . Group, Scientific Committee: P.M. Carrieri (project director) 1,2,3 , A. Morel (principal investigator) 4 , L, 2003.

I. Paul-11, Porteret 11 , T. Sainte Marie 12 . Physicians who contributed to the study: Dr Achard (Private practice

. Dr and . Bry, Private practice), Dr Cadart (Private practice

D. Guillet, CSST Le trait d'union; Boulogne)

D. Marre, Private practice, Le Havre), Dr. Mauraycaplanne; Dr Michel (Private practice, Lillebonne); Dr. Alain Morel (CSST Le trait d'union, Boulogne

D. Petit, (. Csst-avapt, and . Avignon, Dr Pouclet (CSST Centre Hospitalier du Jury

D. Vergez, Private practice, Marseille); Dr Vincent (Private practice

R. Baker, H. Catania, M. Gossop, R. Haemmig, M. Torrens et al., Observatoire Régional de la Santé Provence Alpes Côte d'Azur 8 Private practice 9 Institut de Veille Sanitaire, Saint Maurice, France. 10 Ministry of Health, France International committee of experts, Dr Wajsbrot (Private practice, Avignon). 1 INSERM U912 (SESSTIM) Center of Methodology and Management, INSERM U912: Protocol, guidelines, training: P.M. Carrieri L. Michel, M. Mora, P. Roux. Phone interviews, training, logistics: G. Maradan, J. Biemar, S. Huguet, C. Bravard Data collection, management and statistical analyses: P. Kurkdji, C

J. Desenclos, N. Job-spira, V. Dore, C. Paul, and I. Porteret, French agency for the safety of health products (AFSSPAS): N. Richard. French Ministry of Health: A.Herszkowicz, The French National Agency for Research on AIDS and Viral Hepatitis Prisse. ASUD association: F. Olivet; AIDES association Center of evaluation and information on drug dependence (CEIP): J

P. Am, P. Lm, J. Bs, . Cl, and . Pmc, Performed the experiments: AM PMC PR LM MM Analyzed the data, Arditti Author Contributions Conceived and designed the experiments: Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: MM AM LM PR PMC. Wrote the manuscript: PMC. Contributed to the writing of the manuscript

R. 1. Macarthur, G. Minozzi, S. Martin, N. Vickerman, P. Deren et al., Opiate substitution treatment and HIV transmission in people who inject drugs: systematic review and meta-analysis, BMJ, vol.345, issue.oct03 3, p.5945, 2012.
DOI : 10.1136/bmj.e5945

P. Roux, M. Carrieri, V. Villes, P. Dellamonica, and I. Poizot-martin, The impact of methadone or buprenorphine treatment and ongoing injection on highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) adherence: evidence from the MANIF2000 cohort study, Addiction, vol.38, issue.11, pp.1828-1836, 2008.
DOI : 10.1097/00126334-200212153-00010

M. Carrieri, L. Amass, G. Lucas, D. Vlahov, and A. Wodak, Buprenorphine Use: The International Experience, Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol.6, issue.9, pp.197-215, 2006.
DOI : 10.1093/aje/kwf086
URL : https://academic.oup.com/cid/article-pdf/43/Supplement_4/S197/789536/43-Supplement_4-S197.pdf

M. Auriacombe, M. Fatseas, J. Dubernet, J. Daulouede, and J. Tignol, French Field Experience with Buprenorphine, American Journal on Addictions, vol.13, issue.s1, pp.17-28, 2004.
DOI : 10.1080/10550490490440780

D. Fiellin, O. Connor, P. Chawarski, M. Pakes, J. Pantalon et al., Methadone Maintenance in Primary Care, JAMA, vol.286, issue.14, pp.1724-1731, 2001.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.286.14.1724
URL : http://jama.jamanetwork.com/data/journals/jama/4803/joc10253.pdf

E. Strain, G. Bigelow, I. Liebson, and M. Stitzer, Moderate- vs High-Dose Methadone in the Treatment of Opioid Dependence, JAMA, vol.281, issue.11, pp.1000-1005, 1999.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.281.11.1000

D. Sheehan, Y. Lecrubier, K. Sheehan, P. Amorim, and J. Janavs, The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.): the development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD- 10, J Clin Psychiatry, vol.59, issue.20, pp.22-33, 1998.

B. Brands, J. Blake, D. Marsh, B. Sproule, and R. Jeyapalan, The Impact of Benzodiazepine Use on Methadone Maintenance Treatment Outcomes, Journal of Addictive Diseases, vol.20, issue.3, pp.37-48, 2008.
DOI : 10.1081/JA-120016225

T. Kerr, N. Fairbairn, M. Tyndall, D. Marsh, and K. Li, Predictors of non-fatal overdose among a cohort of polysubstance-using injection drug users, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol.87, issue.1, pp.39-45, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.07.009

P. Roux, L. Michel, J. Cohen, M. Mora, and A. Morel, Methadone induction in primary care (ANRS-Methaville): a phase III randomized intervention trial, BMC Public Health, vol.35, issue.12 Pt 1, p.488, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/S0755-4982(06)74906-5
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/inserm-00768513

R. Schwartz, J. Jaffe, D. Highfield, J. Callaman, O. Grady et al., A randomized controlled trial of interim methadone maintenance: 10-Month follow-up, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol.86, issue.1, pp.30-36, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.04.017

S. Darke, W. Hall, A. Wodak, N. Heather, and J. Ward, Development and validation of a multidimensional instrument for assessing outcome of treatment among opiate users: the Opiate Treatment Index, Addiction, vol.83, issue.5, pp.733-742, 1992.
DOI : 10.1016/0376-8716(90)90049-K

S. Coons, S. Kothari, B. Monz, and L. Burke, The Patient-Reported Outcome (PRO) Consortium: Filling Measurement Gaps for PRO End Points to Support Labeling Claims, Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics, vol.18, issue.5, pp.743-748, 2011.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1472-8206.2004.00234.x

C. Snyder, A. Blackford, N. Aaronson, S. Detmar, and M. Carducci, Can Patient-Reported Outcome Measures Identify Cancer Patients' Most Bothersome Issues?, Journal of Clinical Oncology, vol.29, issue.9, pp.1216-1220, 2011.
DOI : 10.1200/JCO.2010.33.2080

G. Fransen, C. Van-marrewijk, S. Mujakovic, J. Muris, and R. Laheij, Pragmatic trials in primary care. Methodological challenges and solutions demonstrated by the DIAMOND-study, BMC Medical Research Methodology, vol.3, issue.4, p.16, 2007.
DOI : 10.1186/1471-2288-3-28

M. Weinrich and M. Stuart, Provision of Methadone Treatment in Primary Care Medical Practices, JAMA, vol.283, issue.10, pp.1343-1348, 2000.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.283.10.1343

M. Farre, A. Mas, M. Torrens, V. Moreno, and C. J. , Retention rate and illicit opioid use during methadone maintenance interventions: a meta-analysis, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol.65, issue.3, pp.283-290, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0376-8716(01)00171-5

M. Teesson, J. Ross, S. Darke, M. Lynskey, and R. Ali, One year outcomes for heroin dependence: Findings from the Australian Treatment Outcome Study (ATOS), Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol.83, issue.2, pp.174-180, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2005.11.009

H. Wittchen, S. Apelt, M. Soyka, M. Gastpar, and M. Backmund, Feasibility and outcome of substitution treatment of heroin-dependent patients in specialized substitution centers and primary care facilities in Germany: A naturalistic study in 2694 patients, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol.95, issue.3, pp.245-257, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.01.015

R. Hamer and P. Simpson, Last Observation Carried Forward Versus Mixed Models in the Analysis of Psychiatric Clinical Trials, American Journal of Psychiatry, vol.166, issue.6, pp.639-641, 2009.
DOI : 10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09040458

G. Bouvenot and M. Vray, ESSAIS cliniques ??? Th??orie, pratique et critique, Acta Endoscopica, vol.36, issue.3, 2006.
DOI : 10.1007/BF03006053

M. Vray and D. Schwartz, Comments on a pragmatic trial, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, vol.49, issue.8, pp.949-950, 1996.
DOI : 10.1016/0895-4356(96)00047-9

J. Keen, P. Oliver, G. Rowse, and N. Mathers, Does methadone maintenance treatment based on the new national guidelines work in a primary care setting?, Br J Gen Pract, vol.53, pp.461-467, 2003.

R. Macgowan, N. Swanson, R. Brackbill, D. Rugg, and T. Barker, Retention in Methadone Maintenance Treatment Programs, Connecticut and Massachusetts, 1990 ??? 1993, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, vol.4, issue.3, pp.259-265, 1990.
DOI : 10.1097/00002030-199001001-00016

D. Giudice and P. , Cutaneous complications of intravenous drug abuse, British Journal of Dermatology, vol.82, issue.1, pp.1-10, 2004.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJM199506293322606

P. Roux, V. Villes, J. Blanche, D. Bry, and B. Spire, Buprenorphine in primary care: Risk factors for treatment injection and implications for clinical management, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol.97, issue.1-2, pp.105-113, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.03.025

O. Connor, P. Oliveto, A. Shi, J. Triffleman, E. Carroll et al., A randomized trial of buprenorphine maintenance for heroin dependence in a primary care clinic for substance users versus a methadone clinic, Am J Med, vol.105, pp.100-105, 1998.

A. Gibson, C. Doran, J. Bell, A. Ryan, and N. Lintzeris, A comparison of buprenorphine treatment in clinic and primary care settings: a randomised trial, Med J Aust, vol.179, pp.38-42, 2003.

A. Cadet-ta?¨routa?¨rou and D. Cholley, Rapport 2004 -Approche régionale de la substitution aux opiacés, pp.28-36, 1999.

C. Mccowan, B. Kidd, and T. Fahey, Factors associated with mortality in Scottish patients receiving methadone in primary care: retrospective cohort study, BMJ, vol.338, issue.jun16 4, p.2225, 2009.
DOI : 10.1136/bmj.b2225

B. Nosyk, H. Sun, E. Evans, D. Marsh, and M. Anglin, Defining dosing pattern characteristics of successful tapers following methadone maintenance treatment: results from a population-based retrospective cohort study, Addiction, vol.166, issue.3, pp.1621-1629, 2012.
DOI : 10.1093/aje/kwm165

Y. Hser, A. Saxon, D. Huang, A. Hasson, and C. Thomas, Treatment retention among patients randomized to buprenorphine/naloxone compared to methadone in a multi-site trial, Addiction, vol.191, issue.2, pp.79-87, 2014.
DOI : 10.1192/bjp.bp.106.026112

R. Schwartz, S. Kelly, O. Grady, K. Gandhi, D. Jaffe et al., Randomized trial of standard methadone treatment compared to initiating methadone without counseling: 12-month findings, Addiction, vol.52, issue.4, pp.943-952, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/S0376-8716(98)00097-0

A. Fareed, J. Casarella, R. Amar, S. Vayalapalli, and K. Drexler, Methadone Maintenance Dosing Guideline for Opioid Dependence, a Literature Review, Journal of Addictive Diseases, vol.150, issue.1, pp.1-14, 2010.
DOI : 10.1097/ADM.0b013e318155980e

M. Soyka, H. Kranzler, W. Van-den-brink, J. Krystal, and H. Moller, The World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) Guidelines for the Biological Treatment of Substance Use and Related Disorders. Part 2: Opioid dependence, The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry, vol.1187, issue.2288, pp.160-187, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/0006-8993(82)90811-3

D. Wolfe, M. Carrieri, and D. Shepard, Treatment and care for injecting drug users with HIV infection: a review of barriers and ways forward, The Lancet, vol.376, issue.9738, pp.355-366, 2010.
DOI : 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60832-X